1st Airborne Division

During a demonstration at Ringway, Major Toler shows off the jeep’s capabilities, using it to tow a 2-pounder gun across a ploughed field before an audience of senior officers. He successfully conducts loading trials using a Horsa mock-up, proving that the jeep can be effectively loaded alongside the artillery piece, something that would become pivotal in future glider-borne tactics.

This trial is part of a series conducted at Ringway following a meeting on November 18^th, 1941, where it is decided that the 1^st Airborne Division should provide one of each type of vehicle and equipment proposed for glider transport, to conduct experiments using the Horsa mock-up. Initially, the Horsa’s chief designer objects, noting the glider was originally built to accommodate no more than 25 troops or a motorcycle combination. However, modifications are made, enabling the Horsa to carry a wider variety of weapons, vehicles, and equipment listed in the War Office memorandum.

Soon, other potential loads, including arms and equipment weighing up to 3,175 kilograms, are added to the list, necessitating the fitting of a hinged ramp to facilitate easier loading and unloading. By the time the Mark II Horsa is developed, it features a hinged nose, eliminating the need for cumbersome 90-degree turns during unloading.

The successful trials involving the 2-pounder anti-tank gun and the jeep, named from the American term “G.P.” for General Purpose, revolutionise glider tactics. It is now accepted that gliders can transport artillery and other heavy equipment, complete with towing vehicles, ready for immediate deployment. In early War Establishment plans for the Air-Landing Anti-Tank Battery, a glider pilot is designated as the jeep driver, while motorcycles are assigned to pilots transporting guns.

The use of the Horsa glider evolves to include delivering heavy support weapons to assist airborne troops, rather than just transporting personnel, particularly when troops are out of range of friendly fighter cover or artillery support. The British 25-pounder gun, weighing nearly two tonnes, requires significant modification to fit inside a Horsa, but this is eventually achieved by designing a new Mk III carriage for it. However, the most widely carried artillery by the Horsa becomes the American 75 millimetres pack howitzer, which is adapted from pre-war animal transport use. Its compact design, folding trail, and ability to be broken down for parachuting make it ideal for glider deployment, able to be transported complete with its ammunition and a jeep for mobility.

Into Action

On February 27^th, 1942, a unit of the division undertakes it’s first mission, Operation Biting, or the Bruneval Raid. Under command of Combined Operations the objective is to capture a German Würzburg radar system in Bruneval, France. Due to strong coastal defences, an airborne assault followed by sea extraction is chosen over a direct seaborne attack.

C Company of the 2^nd Parachute Battalion, led by Major John Frost, parachutes into France, overcomes the German garrison, and captures the radar site. A technician dismantles crucial parts of the radar for transport back to Britain.

After a firefight to secure the extraction point, the force is picked up by landing craft and transferred to Motor Gun Boats for their return to Britain. The operation succeeds with minimal casualties, two killed and six wounded. The captured radar components provide British scientists valuable insight into German radar technology, enabling them to develop countermeasures that aid the broader war effort.

However, by July 17^th, 1942, it reaches full divisional strength with the formation and inclusion of the 2^nd Parachute Brigade.

Operation Freshman, is launched in November 1942. This is the first British airborne mission using gliders. Its objective is to destroy the Norsk Hydro chemical plant in Vemork, Norway, which produces heavy water essential for Nazi Germany’s atomic weapons program. A small force from the 1^st Airborne Division, including 30 sappers from the 9 Field Company Royal Engineers, is deployed to carry out the raid.

On the night of November 19^th, 1942, two aircraft towing gliders depart from Scotland. Despite reaching Norway, both glider teams fail to reach their target due to severe weather and navigational difficulties. The first glider crashes, resulting in eight troops killed, four injured, and five unharmed, totaling 17 casualties. The second glider crashes into a mountain, killing 14 men, resulting in 14 casualties. The survivors of both crashes are captured, and none survive, as they are either poisoned or executed under Hitler’s Commando Order.

In late 1942, the 1^st Parachute Brigade is deployed to North Africa. Its departure leaves a significant gap in the division’s strength, which is temporarily filled by the 3^rd Parachute Brigade. This arrangement remains until May 1^st, 1943, when the division, now under the command of Major-General Hopkinson, also moves to North Africa to reunite with the 1^st Parachute Brigade and participate in the invasion of Sicily. Meanwhile, the 3^rd Parachute Brigade stays in England, forming the core of the 6^th Airborne Division.

In Sicily, the 1^st Parachute and 1^st Airlanding Brigades see action, but without the 2^nd Parachute Brigade and other divisional support units, and their operations occurred on separate dates and locations around the island.

On September 9^th, 1943, the division, now reinforced by the 4^th Parachute Brigade, is sent to Italy to capture the port of Taranto. The port is swiftly secured, and the 2^nd and 4^th Parachute Brigades advance inland, engaging in several skirmishes, although not as intense as previous airborne operations. During these early stages, Major-General Hopkinson is killed by German machinegun fire, and temporary command passes to Brigadier Eric Down of the 2^nd Parachute Brigade. In November, the 1^st Airborne Division is ordered to return to England, although the 2nd Parachute Brigade remains in Italy as an independent unit.

Between Normandy and Arnhem, 17 operations are proposed for the 1^st Airborne, but each is cancelled at the last minute. This leads to a significant decline in morale among the troops, who begin to refer to themselves as the “Stillborn Division,” believing they are being held in reserve for a victory parade. The Battle of Arnhem ultimately quenches their thirst for action.

Europe

By December 1943, the 1^st Airborne Division returns to England and begins training for operations in North-West Europe under I Airborne Corps. Although not scheduled to participate in the Normandy landings, a contingency plan named Operation Wasteage is developed. Under this plan, the division would be parachuted in to support any of the five invasion beaches if significant delays occur. However, this plan ultimately proves unnecessary.

In January 1944, Roy Urquhart assumes command of the 1^st Airborne Division. The division is passed over for the Normandy invasion in favour of the 6th Airborne Division but is held in reserve. Two weeks before D-Day, the 1^st Airborne Division and the 1^st Polish Independent Parachute Brigade are tasked with acting as the “enemy” during a four-day training exercise for the 6^th Airborne Division.

While the 6^th Airborne Division fights in Normandy, numerous plans are formulated to deploy the 1st Airborne Division into France, but none come to fruition. In June and July 1944, proposals include Operation Reinforcement, which involves landing west of St Sauveur-le-Vicomte to support the US 82nd Airborne Division, and Operation Wild Oats, which envisions landing south of Caen to link up with the advancing 7^th Armoured Division from Villers-Bocage and the 51^st (Highland) Infantry Division along with the 4^th Armoured Brigade from the Orne bridgehead to encircle Caen. These plans are vetoed by Trafford Leigh-Mallory, citing excessive risk for the aircraft involved, and the ground offensive, part of Operation Perch, is stalled by German resistance and delayed reinforcements.

Further plans include Operation Beneficiary, aimed at supporting the American XX Corps in capturing Saint Malo, and Operation Lucky Strike, which targets bridges across the River Seine at Rouen. Another proposal, Operation Sword Hilt, aims to isolate the port of Brest and destroy the Morlaix viaduct. There is also Operation Hands Up, which seeks to support the U.S. Third Army by capturing the Vannes airfield.

By August 1944, the division is still waiting to be deployed, but now as part of a larger force. Operation Transfigure involves the 1^st Airborne Division, 52^nd (Lowland) Infantry Division, US 101^st Airborne Division, and 1^st Polish Parachute Brigade landing at Rambouillet St Arnoult to close the gap between Orléans and Paris. Operation Axehead, using the same force, aims to secure bridges over the River Seine in support of the 21^st Army Group, while Operation Boxer plans for the same force to capture Boulogne and assault V1 flying bomb sites.

Later in August, Operation Linnet is formulated, involving the same units, to seize crossings over the Escaut. In early September, Operation Infatuate is drawn up, involving the entire I Airborne Corps landing in Belgium to trap retreating German forces in the Scheldt estuary and threaten Antwerp.

Finally, in September, Operation Comet is planned, where the division’s three brigades are to land in the Netherlands, each capturing a river crossing. The targets include the bridge over the River Waal at Nijmegen, the bridge over the River Maas at Grave, and the bridge over the River Rhine at Arnhem. However, on 10 September, Operation Comet is cancelled. Instead, a new plan is proposed with the same objectives but involves three divisions of the First Allied Airborne Army, marking the beginning of Operation Market Garden.

Operation Market Garden takes place in September 1944 as an airborne assault involving three divisions—the British 1st Airborne Division, and the American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions. The objective is to secure key bridges and towns along the expected Allied route of advance in the Netherlands. The 1st Airborne Division, supported by the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade, is tasked with landing farthest north at Arnhem to capture the bridges over the Nederrijn River. Lieutenant General Brian Horrocks leads XXX Corps, which is expected to reach the airborne troops in Arnhem within two to three days, anticipating minimal resistance.

The 1st Airborne Division lands some distance from its objectives and quickly faces unexpected resistance, particularly from elements of the 9th SS and 10th SS Panzer Divisions. Only a small contingent of airborne troops manages to reach the Arnhem road bridge, while the majority of the division is halted on the outskirts of the city. XXX Corps, advancing from the south, encounters delays and is unable to relieve the airborne forces as planned.

After four days of intense fighting, the small British contingent at the Arnhem bridge is overwhelmed. The remaining forces are soon trapped in a pocket north of the river, unable to be reinforced by the 1st Polish Parachute Brigade or by XXX Corps, which arrives on the southern bank. After nine days of relentless combat, the battered remnants of the 1st Airborne Division are withdrawn across the Rhine to the south. The division suffers significant losses, with around 8,000 men killed, wounded, or captured, and is never deployed in combat again.

Within a week of the battle’s conclusion, the 1^st Airborne Division returns to England, receiving a hero’s welcome despite being in a depleted state, with only a quarter of their original force remaining and much of the leadership structure in disarray, although the divisional headquarters remains largely intact. Reinforcements are brought in, but these only restore the division to the strength of a weakened unit. Nevertheless, on December 6^th, 1944, 438 selected soldiers from all areas of the division proudly parade through the streets of London for the Arnhem investiture at Buckingham Palace, where many receive decorations from King George VI. However, the event is described as a “ghost march,” as the public is not informed about it for security reasons.

The 1^st Airborne Division plays no further role in the war as a complete fighting unit. In May 1945, immediately following Victory in Europe Day, the 1^st Airborne Division is deployed to Norway to disarm and repatriate the 350,000-strong German occupation army. The division maintains law and order until the arrival of the larger occupation force, known as Force 134. During their time in Norway, the 1^st Airborne Division is responsible for overseeing the surrender of German forces and preventing any sabotage of vital military and civilian facilities.

The German Instrument of Surrender is delivered on May 8^th, 1945, to General Franz Böhme, the commander of all German forces in Norway. The 1^st Airborne Division arrives near Oslo and Stavanger between May 9^th, 1945, and May 11^th, 1945. Most of the transport aircraft carrying the division land safely, although one crashes, resulting in several fatalities. Despite initial concerns, the division faces minimal resistance from German forces.

The division’s operational duties in Norway include welcoming back King Haakon, caring for Allied ex-prisoners of war, arresting suspected war criminals, and supervising the clearing of minefields. Additionally, the division investigates the fate of the airborne troops involved in Operation Freshman. The division is recalled to England in August 1945. Although there were plans to deploy them to the Middle East to serve as a strategic reserve, these plans are ultimately abandoned. The 1^st Airborne Division is officially disbanded on August 26^th, 1945, and its units are dispersed.